Greta Jimenez
China's environmental crisis is the result of decades of rapid industrialization, threatening the health and livelihoods of its 1.4 billion people and the global fight against climate change. China's carbon emissions, with coal as a key energy source, have led to air pollution, water scarcity, and soil contamination. This has resulted in severe health issues, with air pollution causing about 2 million deaths in China annually and water pollution impacting the lives of millions more. While China has implemented policies to curb emissions, such as signing the 2015 Paris Agreement, the challenge of balancing economic growth with environmental welfare remains.
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What You'll Learn
Population growth and soil pollution
China's population has been growing immensely since the 1980s, and this has resulted in increased soil pollution. China is the most populated country in the world, but it has a relatively small amount of fertile land and even less water. The quality of agricultural land is of utmost importance if China wants to feed its large and growing population. However, China is one of the countries with the highest levels of soil pollution.
The State Environmental Protection Administration believes that soil pollution is a threat to the environment, food safety, and sustainable agriculture. 38,610 square miles (100,000 km2) of China's cultivated land has been polluted, with contaminated water being used to irrigate a further 31.5 million square miles (21,670 km2). Another 2 million square miles (1,300 km2) have been covered or destroyed by solid waste. This affected area accounts for one-tenth of China's cultivable land. An estimated 6 million tons of food grain are contaminated by heavy metals every year, causing direct losses of 29 billion yuan (US$2.57 billion).
The primary cause of soil pollution from agricultural activities is the excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers on farmland, which is mainly located in the south, where most of the food is produced. In 2000, 36,000 of the 300,000 hectares of basic farmland monitored were found to have harmful heavy metal concentrations more than 12% above the standard. Industrial activities also contribute to soil pollution, with airborne industrial pollutants falling onto the land, mainly in the west of the country.
China's rapid economic growth has lifted millions out of poverty, but it has also resulted in immense environmental degradation. Much of this growth has been powered by coal, a cheap but highly polluting energy source. In 1990, 76.2% of China's energy consumption was generated by coal, and while this figure has decreased over time, coal still accounted for 57.7% of energy consumption in 2019. Electricity generation has historically been the main source of China's air pollution, but large coal-powered industries have increasingly contributed to the problem. By 2017, the steel industry had become the country's biggest polluter. The use of coal by households also significantly contributes to air pollution, especially in rural areas where many rely on it for heating and cooking.
The Chinese government has started to address the problem of soil pollution. In 2014, a new environmental protection law was approved, which removed the caps that had kept fines for polluters low. However, cleaning up soil pollution is a difficult and lengthy process that will require significant investment.
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Plastic waste and electronic waste
Plastic waste is a significant contributor to pollution in China. China is the world's largest plastic producer and consumer, and it generates the most plastic waste globally. The country's massive local plastic production contributes to its high greenhouse gas emissions, which are already largely derived from coal production. China's plastic waste is a major source of ocean plastic pollution, with the Yangtze River being responsible for more than half of all marine plastic pollution, according to some reports.
China's plastic pollution problem is exacerbated by its previous role as the world's largest importer of plastic waste until 2017 or 2018, depending on the source. This import ban was long-awaited and has had a positive impact on the country's air quality. However, it has also had repercussions for other nations, forcing them to find new ways to manage their waste.
China has been taking aggressive strides to address its plastic pollution problem. Since 2016, the growth trend in plastic production and consumption has slowed, and the recycling rate has increased, surpassing 30% in 2021. China has also implemented various regulations and policies to reduce plastic usage and improve recycling, such as the "Producer Takeback" management system, which holds manufacturers responsible for the environmentally safe management of their products even after they are discarded.
Electronic waste, or e-waste, is another significant contributor to pollution in China. Informal e-waste recycling, which often involves crude methods such as burning materials, releases massive amounts of toxic chemicals like lead, chromium, and cadmium. These pollutants contaminate the soil, air, water, and entire ecosystems near recycling sites and e-waste landfills. The health consequences are severe, with studies showing that informal e-waste workers in China have extremely high levels of hazardous materials in their systems.
The Chinese government has recognized the environmental and health impacts of e-waste and has implemented several regulations to address the issue. For example, the "Administrative Measures for the Prevention and Control of Environmental Pollution by Electronic Waste" act requires all e-waste treatment enterprises to adopt pollution control techniques and register with local government agencies. Additionally, the government has promoted technical upgrades in informal workshops, such as replacing coal-fired grills with electrical heaters, to reduce toxin leakage when treating circuit boards.
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Air pollution and health issues
China is the world's largest developing country, with rapid economic growth and a huge population. The country's industrialization has resulted in severe air pollution, causing adverse health impacts on society. Air pollution in China has been linked to a range of health issues, including respiratory, cardiovascular, and pulmonary problems. Studies have also found that exposure to air pollution increases health risks and can lead to premature deaths. According to the Global Burden of Disease study, ambient PM2.5 pollution caused approximately 1.4 million premature deaths in China in 2019.
The health effects of air pollution in China vary by region. For example, in Central and Western China, the duration of good air quality in autumn and winter was positively correlated with health scores, while an inverse correlation was observed in Eastern China. This could be due to the higher number of coal-burning industries located in the south and east of Beijing, with pollutants from these factories being carried by winds into the city.
Unprecedented growth and development in China have had significant costs on the environment and public health. The country's rapid economic growth has been powered by coal, a cheap but highly polluting energy source. In recent years, there has been a shift, with the steel industry becoming the biggest polluter in 2017. Additionally, vehicle emissions have significantly contributed to air pollution, especially in larger cities like Beijing and Shanghai.
The Chinese government has recognized the health and environmental impacts of air pollution and has implemented various strategies to address the issue. In 2013, an anti-pollution campaign was launched to control PM2.5 levels, resulting in a 50% reduction in average PM2.5 concentration by 2019. The government also banned free plastic bags in supermarkets and department stores in 2008 to reduce plastic waste. Despite these efforts, air pollution remains a serious challenge, and it will be crucial to balance economic growth with environmental and social welfare.
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Coal power plants and industries
China's coal consumption is closely linked to its industrialization. Between 2002 and 2013, coal accounted for 77% of the increase in primary energy demand, driven by coal consumption in the cement, chemical, and steel sectors. Coal is widely used in China for electricity generation, producing heat, and as an industrial feedstock. In 2020, 60% of coal was used for electricity and heat generation, with the industry accounting for one-third of the demand.
China's coal-fired power plants operated an average of 4448 hours in 2021 and 4216 hours in 2020, which is roughly half of the 8760-hour theoretical maximum. During the 13th Five-Year Plan (2016-2020), China introduced policies aimed at reducing coal's share of the energy mix, including capping coal use, removing dispersed coal from urban areas, and tightening CO2 emissions standards. However, China's construction of new coal-power plants reached a 10-year high in 2024, with 94.5 GW of new coal-power capacity added. This resurgence in coal-power construction is driven by investments from the coal-mining sector and the need to secure stable demand for their output.
The steel, cement, and chemicals industries in China rely heavily on coal as a feedstock and cheap coal-fired electricity. The coal industry is also a significant contributor to local economic growth and job creation, supporting more than 2.7 million jobs in 2021. Additionally, electricity demand is projected to rise due to ongoing urbanization, economic growth, and the expansion of energy-consuming industries. China's domestic natural gas supplies are limited, making coal a more attractive option for energy security.
China's coal production rose 6.6% during the period from January to April 2025, resulting in rising stockpiles. The state planner has asked power plants to prioritize domestic coal and increase thermal coal stockpiles, setting a target of 215 million metric tons by June 10, 2025. However, with inventories piling up, there are concerns that these guidelines may not effectively support miners' profits or stabilize coal prices.
To address emissions from coal use, Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) technology can separate CO2 from other gases at power plants and industrial facilities. However, the deployment of CCS has been limited due to high costs and the absence of government policies incentivizing its use. As China continues to add coal-power capacity, strong policy direction is needed to reduce coal consumption and prioritize renewable energy sources.
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Vehicle emissions in large cities
Vehicle emissions are a significant contributor to air pollution in China, especially in large cities. The country's rapid industrialization and population growth have led to a surge in the number of vehicles on the roads, with the vehicle population reaching 372 million in 2020. This increase has outpaced the development of transportation infrastructure, particularly highways, which has further exacerbated the problem of vehicle emissions.
Large cities like Beijing, Shanghai, and Tianjin have attracted extra attention due to their dense traffic conditions and prominent air pollution. The air quality index (AQI) in Beijing, for example, reached extremely dangerous levels in January 2013, with fine particulate matter (PM2.5) levels nearly 1,000 μg per cubic meter. These particles, formed from primary sources like traffic emissions, can cause serious health issues, including asthma, bronchitis, and respiratory symptoms.
The vehicle transportation sector emits various pollutants, including carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), hydrogen carbon (HC), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). These emissions contribute to the formation of secondary particulate matter and ground-level ozone (O3), which have been linked to adverse health effects, including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. The proportion of heavily polluted days with O3 as the dominant pollutant in 338 Chinese cities showed an upward trend, increasing from 16.9% to 41.8%.
Some regions in China are taking steps to address vehicle emissions. Hainan province has announced a ban on the sale of fuel-powered cars by 2030, aiming to reduce local air pollution. However, the effectiveness of such measures in reducing carbon emissions is yet to be determined. Additionally, middle-sized cities like Langfang, located near Beijing and Tianjin, are facing severe vehicle pollution due to an increasing vehicle population and lagged control policies.
Overall, the growing vehicle population in China's large cities contributes significantly to air pollution, threatening human health and the environment. Comprehensive policies and infrastructure developments are needed to mitigate vehicle emissions and improve air quality in these urban areas.
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Frequently asked questions
The main source of pollution in China is electricity generation, driven by coal-powered industries.
Pollution in China has caused widespread environmental and health problems. It is responsible for about 2 million deaths in China per year, causing diseases including stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases and respiratory infections.
China has implemented policies to curb emissions and improve air quality, including signing the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate and pledging to be carbon neutral by 2060.
No, pollution in China is not a recent phenomenon. It is the result of decades of rapid industrialization, population growth and economic development.
