Brian Barton
Pollution is not a new phenomenon. Evidence of air pollution has been found in the blackened lungs of mummified tissue from Egypt, Peru and Great Britain, suggesting that the burning of wood in ancient homes contributed to the problem. The residents of ancient Rome referred to their city’s smoke cloud as gravioris caeli or heavy heaven, and the philosopher Seneca wrote of Rome's infamous air. However, most recognise the Anthropocene, or the Age of Humans, as beginning with the Industrial Revolution in the 1780s-1830s, when the burning of fossil fuels such as coal became more prevalent.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Definition | The introduction of harmful substances, contaminants, or pollutants into the natural environment |
| Forms | Air, water, land, noise, light, plastic, soil, radioactive, thermal, visual, and indoor |
| Sources | Natural (e.g. forest fires, volcanoes) and anthropogenic (human activities such as manufacturing, extractive industries, waste management, transportation, agriculture, etc.) |
| History | Ancient human settlements were recognised by their wastes; around 1000 CE, the use of coal for fuel caused significant air pollution; in the 19th and 20th centuries, many sources of pollution were unregulated during industrialisation |
| Impact | Negative effects on the environment, wildlife, and human health and well-being; in 2019, pollution caused approximately nine million deaths worldwide, with three-quarters attributed to air pollution; other sources state seven million deaths |
| Mitigation | Environmental, political, and economic leadership; developed nations reducing, recycling, and treating waste; developing nations strengthening their economies without environmental destruction; collaboration between nations |
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What You'll Learn
Pollution from natural sources
While pollution is often associated with human activity, natural sources of pollution have existed since the emergence of our earliest ancestors. These natural sources of pollution can be classified as point source pollution, which comes from a specific site, or nonpoint source pollution, which comes from distributed sources.
Natural sources of air pollution include organic compounds from plants, sea salt, suspended soils, and dust (like that from the Sahara). Wildfires, volcanic eruptions, and forest fires are also natural sources of air pollution, releasing large amounts of harmful gases and smoke that can increase background pollution levels for years, even in areas far from the original source. For example, volcanoes used to be the main source of atmospheric sulphur dioxide. Summertime wildfires can reduce visibility and cause haze. Wind-blown dust from natural sources can also contribute to air pollution and be transported over long distances to affect areas downwind.
In addition to air pollution, natural sources can also cause water pollution. For example, the Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio, which flows into Lake Erie, became so polluted with floating debris and oils that the water caught fire several times between 1936 and 1969, with another major fire in 1969.
Throughout history, pollution from natural sources has been exacerbated by human activity. During the Middle Ages, diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever broke out across Europe due to unsanitary conditions caused by human and animal wastes. Similarly, in the 19th century, episodes of "smog" in cities like New York and London resulted from the increased use of coal and steam power, contributing to many deaths. While pollution from natural sources can have significant impacts, human activities have often intensified these effects, leading to the environmental challenges we face today.
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Pollution from human sources
Pollution has been a problem since the emergence of our earliest ancestors, with the increase in human population leading to more bacteria and disease. During the Middle Ages, diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever were direct results of unsanitary conditions caused by human and animal waste.
The Industrial Revolution, which began in the early 19th century, marked a significant shift in manufacturing processes, with the increased use of mechanised factories, chemical manufacturing, iron production, and steam and water power. This shift led to a greater demand for natural resources, such as coal and iron, which contributed to the rise of air pollution. Cities like New York and London experienced episodes of "smog", a combination of smoke and fog, resulting in numerous deaths.
In the 20th century, water and air pollution in urban areas of the United States continued to increase. The Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio, became so polluted that it caught fire multiple times, with the most notable incidents occurring in 1936 and 1969. These fires sparked public outrage and led to the creation of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1972), commonly known as the Clean Water Act.
Acid rain, identified in North America in the 1960s, became a pressing environmental issue in the following decades. It was found to be a direct consequence of air pollution, causing the corrosion of surfaces, increased acidification of freshwater, and a loss of biodiversity, particularly in aquatic ecosystems.
The development of nuclear science introduced radioactive contamination, which can persist for hundreds of thousands of years, posing a significant threat to the environment and human health.
Today, pollution remains a critical issue, with approximately nine million deaths worldwide attributed to pollution in 2019. Major sources of pollution include air pollution, water pollution, litter, noise pollution, plastic pollution, soil contamination, thermal pollution, light pollution, and visual pollution. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, industrial processes, poor waste management, transportation, and agriculture, are significant contributors to these forms of pollution.
To address pollution from human sources, interventions such as sustainable land use, cleaner household energy and transportation, energy-efficient housing, improved power generation, and better waste management practices are crucial.
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Air pollution
Written accounts from the eighteenth century onwards highlight the deteriorating air quality in urban centres and industrial areas. The Industrial Revolution intensified emissions and expanded the geographical reach, with highly polluted cities becoming a defining issue. This trend culminated in the Great Smog of London in 1952, which had devastating consequences.
Episodes of smog, a combination of smoke and fog, in the nineteenth century led to numerous deaths in cities like New York and London. In 1897, a report to the Royal Commission on River Pollution detailed severe industrial contamination of the Tawe River in Wales, providing evidence of the growing pollution crisis.
As cities became more populated, industrial waste and chemical pollution of water bodies also emerged as critical concerns. Chicago, for instance, built one of the first sewage systems in the United States to address wastewater issues.
In the late 20th century, air pollution remained a significant challenge, as evident in the 1948 Donora incident in Pennsylvania, where nearly 40 people lost their lives due to severe air pollution. This event spurred the creation of the Air Pollution Control Act of 1955, marking the first federal attempt to control air pollution.
Today, air pollution continues to pose risks to human health and the environment, with the burning of fossil fuels, vehicle emissions, and industrial processes being major contributors. Efforts to regulate and reduce pollution have led to legislation such as the Clean Air Act and the development of programs like cap and trade to limit emissions and improve air quality.
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Water pollution
The 1960s marked the emergence of an environmental movement aimed at curbing the tide of pollutants entering the planet's ecosystems. This led to legislative victories such as the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972, commonly known as the Clean Water Act. The Clean Water Act established regulations to control pollutant discharges into bodies of water and provided funding for improving sewage treatment plants.
Despite these efforts, water pollution remains a critical issue today, with rivers, reservoirs, lakes, and seas contaminated by chemicals, waste, plastic, and other pollutants. Agriculture is a significant contributor to water pollution, with farming and livestock production accounting for about 70% of freshwater consumption and being a leading cause of water degradation. Industrial waste is also a major concern, especially in developing countries, where untreated industrial waste is dumped into water sources.
Pollution from urban areas, oil spills, and household chemicals also contribute to the degradation of water quality. Additionally, climate change and rising global temperatures are expected to increase water pollution challenges by 2050, as the demand for freshwater is projected to increase by one-third compared to current levels.
Addressing water pollution requires collective action, including reducing plastic consumption, properly disposing of chemicals and oils, maintaining vehicles to prevent leaks, and adopting landscaping practices that reduce runoff.
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Radioactive contamination
Pollution has been a problem since the emergence of our earliest ancestors. As populations grew, so did the risk of disease and bacteria. During the Middle Ages, Europe suffered from cholera and typhoid fever, which were caused by unsanitary conditions. By the 1800s, the link between unsanitary living conditions and water contamination and disease epidemics was established.
The Industrial Revolution, which began in the early 19th century, marked a significant shift in manufacturing processes, with the increased use of coal and iron, and the emergence of mechanised factories. This period saw the beginning of widespread air pollution, with smog in cities causing many deaths.
The development of nuclear science introduced radioactive contamination, which is a unique form of pollution due to its longevity. Radioactive contamination can remain lethally radioactive for hundreds of thousands of years. Radioactive contamination occurs when radioactive material is deposited on or in an object or person, and it can enter the body through ingestion, inhalation, absorption, or injection.
There are techniques to contain and control radioactive contamination, such as the use of specialised exit control instruments, personal protective equipment, and decontamination gels and coatings. However, the long-term effects of radioactive contamination on vulnerable populations and ecosystems remain a serious concern.
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Frequently asked questions
Some types of air pollution occur naturally, such as smoke from wildfires, ash from volcanoes, and windblown sand or dust.
Humans have been polluting the Earth for thousands of years. The use of wood fires in ancient homes has been found to have polluted the air, and the Romans are thought to be the first to have spewed metallic pollutants into the air. The Industrial Revolution, however, is when problems with human-caused air pollution began to worsen, with more people burning coal to heat their homes and power factories and engines.
In 1897, a report to the Royal Commission on River Pollution detailed the gross industrial contamination of the Tawe River in Wales.
