Estonia's Peacekeeping: Environmental Impact And Pollution Concerns

Estonia's environmental policies are influenced by the country's unique history and geography. Despite substantial progress in reducing its carbon footprint, Estonia remains an emission-intensive economy, heavily reliant on oil shale for energy. This has led to significant environmental costs, including solid waste generation, air pollution, and extensive water usage. To achieve its ambitious climate goals, Estonia must address several key challenges, including phasing out oil shale production, increasing renewable energy sources, and improving energy efficiency. Estonia's residential and transportation sectors also require targeted policies to reduce emissions and support the transition to a low-carbon economy. While the country has shown resilience to immediate climate risks, proactive adaptation planning is necessary to address emerging challenges and ensure long-term sustainability.

Oil shale-based energy production

Estonia's oil shale-based energy production has had a significant impact on the environment, contributing to pollution and waste levels in the country. Here is an in-depth look at the effects of this industry on Estonia's natural environment:

Air Pollution

Oil shale-fired power stations in Estonia emit large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other gases, such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur dioxide (SO2). The combustion of oil shale releases more CO2 into the atmosphere per unit of energy generated than any other primary fuel. This has led to Estonia being the second-largest emitter of CO2 per capita in the European Union. The industry also emits about 200,000 tonnes of fly ash into the atmosphere annually, including harmful pollutants such as heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). These emissions not only affect Estonia but also neighbouring countries like Finland and Russia.

Water Usage and Pollution

The oil shale industry requires significant water usage, as large amounts of water must be pumped out of mines to access the shale. This alters groundwater levels and quality and affects the natural movement of surface water bodies. Additionally, the process and wastewaters from shale oil extraction contain toxic pollutants, and power stations use water for cooling and ash transportation, further contributing to water usage. The resulting water pollution affects lakes and rivers, with increased sulphate levels and changes in sediment composition.

Waste and Land Usage

The oil shale industry generates solid waste, including combustion ashes, mining waste, and spent shale. Former and current mines occupy about 1% of Estonia's territory, and semi-coke and ash heaps from waste material can cover large areas, altering the topography. Additionally, the waste heaps are subject to self-ignition, posing fire risks.

Health Impact

The high concentrations of pollutants in the oil shale region have been linked to health issues for local residents. Children living in these areas have higher rates of respiratory diseases, and life expectancy is projected to be four years lower on average. A study also found that residents of the region reported higher rates of cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, and lung cancer.

Progress and Future Plans

Estonia has recognised the environmental and health impacts of oil shale-based energy production and is taking steps towards reducing its reliance on this resource. The country aims to achieve climate neutrality by 2050 and has committed to phasing out oil shale power generation by 2035 and all energy production by 2040. Estonia is increasing the use of renewable energy sources and improving the interconnectivity of its electricity grid with neighbouring countries.

Environmental impact of the Soviet era

Estonia's environmental issues are closely tied to its energy sector, which relies heavily on oil shale—a fossil fuel that is carbon-intensive and has a high emission factor. This has made Estonia one of the most emission-intensive economies in the EU.

The Soviet Impact

During the Soviet era, Estonia's economic structures were purposefully destroyed, and new production structures were built to serve Soviet interests, with little regard for the local environment. Local environmental resources were extensively overused, and the country's former economic ties were severed, isolating Estonia from non-Soviet markets.

The Soviet occupation also brought with it mass deportations, political arrests, executions, and the suppression of local culture. This caused a sharp decline in the proportion of ethnic Estonians in the country, from 88% in 1934 to 62% in 1989.

Post-Soviet Challenges

Estonia has made notable progress in reducing its carbon footprint and transitioning to renewable energy sources. However, it still faces significant challenges due to its historical reliance on oil shale, which provides about 60% of its energy supply.

Estonia's ambitious climate goals include achieving climate neutrality by 2050 and cutting greenhouse gas emissions by 80% by 2035. To achieve these goals, Estonia must phase out oil shale production, increase the share of renewables, improve the interconnectivity of its electricity grid, implement carbon pricing, and reduce fossil fuel subsidies.

Current Status

Estonia's environmental condition has improved in recent years. The quality of air and water has improved, and the nature conservation status of species and habitats of European concern is mostly favourable. However, challenges remain, particularly in waste management and air pollution from transport and the combustion of oil shale.

Air pollution

Estonia's air quality is impacted by its reliance on oil shale for energy and electricity generation, which contributes to air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. While the country has made progress in reducing its carbon footprint, it remains among the most emission-intensive economies in the EU.

Sources of Air Pollution in Estonia

• Oil Shale Industry: Oil shale mining, electricity generation, and shale oil extraction release sulphur dioxide (SO2), particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5), nitrogen oxides (NOx), benzene, phenols, and other pollutants. The eastern county of Ida-Viru, with a long history of oil shale-related industries, has recorded higher air pollution levels and adverse health effects on residents.
• Transportation Sector: Traffic is a significant contributor to air pollution, particularly in urban areas, with emissions from vehicles affecting air quality.
• Residential Sector: Wood combustion in the residential sector is another source of air pollution, and policies targeting this sector could aid the transition to cleaner energy.

Health Impacts of Air Pollution in Estonia

Mitigation Efforts and Challenges

Estonia has implemented measures to improve air quality and reduce emissions:

• Desulphurisation Systems: Unique desulphurisation systems were installed on power plant units, helping Estonia meet its goal of reducing annual SO2 emissions.
• Renewable Energy: The country aims to increase the share of renewable energy sources like biomass, wind, and hydropower. By 2020, the target was to reach 25% of final consumption from renewables.
• Interconnectors Project: Estonia, along with Latvia and Lithuania, is working on connecting their electricity networks with continental Europe via Poland by February 2025, diversifying their energy mix.
• Carbon Pricing and Fossil Fuel Subsidies: Estonia is addressing carbon pricing and plans to reduce fossil fuel subsidies to support decarbonisation.
• Sectoral Policies: Targeted policies for the residential and transportation sectors, which contribute significantly to GHG emissions, can further aid the transition to cleaner energy.

However, challenges remain, and a key hurdle is the planned phase-out of oil shale production, which provides energy independence for the country. Additionally, improving the interconnectivity of the electricity grid and addressing the carbon-intensive energy mix are crucial steps toward achieving Estonia's climate goals.

Water quality

While the tap and bottled water in Estonia are of good quality, the quality of the country's groundwater is threatened by pollutants. According to a 2014 study, the average Estonian consumed 45 litres of bottled water each year, despite the similarity in quality between bottled water and tap water. The taste difference between the two is slight, and may be more noticeable in Tallinn, where tap water is sourced from Lake Ülemiste.

The management of freshwater sources and their protection falls under the Ministry of the Environment, which enforces Estonia's water policy, aligned with that of the European Union. Several legal provisions support sustainable development, focusing on aspects such as the quality of the water in river basins.

Over the past decade, the National Environmental Monitoring Programme has reported improvements in water quality near inland water bodies and the coastal sea. However, rivers, particularly those flowing into the Gulf of Finland, still require improvements.

Estonia's greenhouse gas emissions declined sharply in the years after it regained independence, but this progress stagnated and emissions remained stable. The country remains one of the most emission-intensive economies in the EU due to its heavy reliance on oil shale for energy and electricity generation. Oil shale production carries significant environmental costs, contributing to air pollution and requiring extensive water usage. Estonia has committed to ending oil shale use in electricity production by 2035 and in all energy production by 2040.

The majority of Estonia's coastal waters are in moderate status, with Haapsalu Bay being an exception, as its ecological status is considered poor. The conditions of Lake Peipsi are deteriorating, and it is classified as being of moderate status. Approximately 34% of monitored water bodies are considered to be in moderate status or worse, indicating a need for water-protection measures.

Estonia has been successful in building modern wastewater treatment plants and modernising industries to reduce pollution. However, challenges remain in cleaning land and sediments contaminated with hazardous substances and fertilisers, as well as addressing the impact of historical drainage systems.

Climate change

Estonia has made significant progress in reducing its carbon footprint, but it remains one of the most emission-intensive economies in the EU. The country's greenhouse gas emissions declined sharply after regaining independence, but this improvement was short-lived, and emissions stabilised for a prolonged period. The main contributor to greenhouse gases is the oil shale-fuelled energy sector. Oil shale production is one of the most carbon-intensive forms of electricity, heat, and oil generation, and it generates solid waste, air pollution, and requires extensive water usage. Estonia has committed to ending oil shale use in electricity production by 2035 and in all energy production by 2040. The country plans to increase the share of renewable energy sources, with current sources being biomass, wind, and hydropower.

Estonia's carbon-intensive energy mix is a key obstacle to decarbonisation. The country relies on oil shale for about 60% of its energy supply, and this has a high carbon emission factor. Estonia is one of the few remaining EU member states with electricity networks still synchronised with Russia and Belarus. The interconnector project, supported by the EU, aims to connect the electricity networks of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania with continental Europe via Poland by February 2025. This will help Estonia diversify its energy mix.

Estonia's residential and transportation sectors also produce significant GHG emissions. The transport sector, in particular, has seen a steady increase in GHG emissions since the early 1990s, driven by the growing number of vehicles and kilometres driven. The average age of passenger cars in Estonia is high, and the emission efficiency of these cars is below the EU average.

Estonia has set ambitious climate goals, including achieving climate neutrality by 2050 and reducing GHG emissions by 80% by 2035 compared to 1990 levels. To achieve these goals, Estonia must implement comprehensive and coordinated policies that address low effective carbon pricing and high fossil fuel subsidies, while also leveraging opportunities in renewable energy, taxation, spending, and technology.

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