The Dark History Of Pollution: When Did It Begin?

Pollution has been a problem since the emergence of our earliest ancestors, but the issue intensified during the Industrial Revolution, when the burning of fossil fuels like coal became more prevalent. The Industrial Revolution, which began in the 1700s, saw an increase in air pollution due to more people burning coal to heat their homes and power factories and engines. This led to the rise of smog, a combination of smoke and fog, which caused many deaths in cities like New York and London. While the Industrial Revolution marked a significant turning point in the history of pollution, there is also evidence of anthropogenic pollution preceding this era, such as the Inca metallurgy recorded in the Quelccaya ice core from around 1480.

The Industrial Revolution

As the Industrial Revolution progressed, Britain's monopoly on industrialization ended as it spread to other parts of Europe, the United States, and beyond. The Second Industrial Revolution, from the late 19th century to World War I, further increased carbon dioxide emissions with the introduction of electricity, steel production, and the internal combustion engine. This phase drove mass production and the growth of heavy industries, leading to exponential increases in energy consumption and resource extraction.

The environmental consequences of these revolutions were severe. Air pollution from factory emissions, coal-powered steam engines, and the burning of coal in homes filled industrial cities with thick smog. Improper industrial practices and mining practices led to the pollution of waterways with oil, debris, and toxic chemical runoff, causing widespread losses of wildlife and outbreaks of diseases like cholera and typhoid.

The global challenges of widespread water and air pollution, reductions in biodiversity, destruction of wildlife habitats, and even global warming can be traced back to the Industrial Revolution. The cumulative environmental strain caused by each phase of industrialization has had long-term damaging effects on the planet.

Ancient Rome

Lead Pollution

The Roman period has been dubbed the "Lead Age" due to the extensive use of lead in construction and waterworks. Lead was used in pipes, fountains, baths, roofs, and tanks for storing potable water. As a result, the piped water in Rome had significantly higher lead content than natural spring water. This lead pollution extended beyond Rome, as evidenced by sediment cores from Alexandria, Egypt, which showed a spike in lead pollution during the Roman occupation.

Metallurgy and Agriculture

The Romans' metallurgy and large-scale agriculture also contributed to pollution. The burning of wood to fashion metal weapons and the keeping of domesticated livestock, such as cows, sheep, and goats, increased methane gas emissions. This human activity, along with similar practices in the Han dynasty, is believed to have contributed to rising methane concentrations globally.

War Tactics

The Romans employed a "scorched earth" tactic during their constant wars, razing crops, forests, and fields to starve their enemies. This exploitation of the territory caused a massive impact on the environment, as noted by intellectuals within Roman civilization.

Waste Management

As the Roman civilization expanded, environmental problems emerged, and regulations and laws were implemented to address them. The Romans created a sewage system to remove waste from cities, transferring it to nearby rivers downstream. They also utilized hydraulic power in their industries, reducing their reliance on burning coal or wood.

Polluted Lakes

Similar to modern times, the Ancient Romans polluted lakes with nutrient runoff from fertilizers used in agriculture. Lake Murten is an example of a lake that took centuries to recover from pollution caused by human land use.

Inca metallurgy

Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America refers to the extraction, purification, alloying, and crafting of metals by Indigenous peoples of the Americas before European contact in the 15th century. Metallurgy is known to have been practised in South America as early as 2155–1936 BC, with gold artifacts from the Andean region dated to this period. However, the development of metallurgy in the central Peruvian Andes remained unclear until recently.

In 2007, scientists discovered the earliest evidence of metallurgy in the central Peruvian Andes, dating back to between 1000 and 1200 AD, after the fall of the Wari Empire and before the rise of the Inca civilisation. This early metallurgy focused on copper and copper alloys. After 1450 AD, with the rise of Inca control, villages switched from copper to silver, as the Inca rulers imposed a tax payable in silver. Silver was considered a precious metal with ceremonial status among the Inca.

The Inca Empire is known to have expanded into various territories, including Diaguita lands in modern-day Chile and Argentina, possibly due to their mineral wealth and the need for labour in Chilean mining districts. The Incas influenced the metallurgical practices of the cultures they encountered, such as the Diaguita and Mapuche peoples. For example, the Mapuche people of Chile, who had previously used simple stone and wooden tools, began using copper and bronze tools under Inca influence.

Inca metalworking is notable for its unique artistic style, often featuring anthropomorphic or zoomorphic designs. Metal objects created by the Inca include a range of practical items such as tools, weapons, and utensils, as well as ornamental and religious objects. Metalworking also served as a means to display wealth and status, with certain metals like gold and silver holding cultural significance.

The start of agriculture

The advent of agriculture marked a significant shift in human history, transforming societies and paving the way for the development of civilisations. However, it also contributed to the emergence of pollution, particularly in the form of agricultural pollution, which has had detrimental effects on the environment and human health.

Agriculture, as it stands today, accounts for a significant portion of water pollution. Farms discharge large quantities of agrochemicals, organic matter, drug residues, sediments, and saline drainage into water bodies. This has led to agricultural runoff being the leading cause of water quality issues in rivers and streams, the third-largest source of lake pollution, and the second-largest for wetlands. The excessive use of fertilisers and pesticides in agriculture has resulted in nutrient runoff, contaminating water sources and degrading soil health.

The use of pesticides and herbicides in agriculture has had both intended and unintended consequences. While they are effective in controlling pests, they can also accumulate in animals that consume contaminated pests and soil organisms. Additionally, they can negatively impact non-target organisms, such as pollinators, which are vital for the ecosystem. The persistence of certain pesticides in the environment, with lifetimes of up to 20 years or even permanent, further exacerbates their impact.

Livestock production, which accounts for a significant portion of agricultural land, contributes to air and water pollution. Livestock and their manure emit ammonia, which combines with other air pollutants to form harmful solid particles. These particles are inhaled by humans and are linked to heart and lung diseases. Additionally, manure management accounts for a considerable percentage of agricultural greenhouse gas emissions globally.

The expansion of irrigation practices has also played a role in transferring agricultural pollution to water bodies. The increased use of antibiotics, fungicides, and anti-fouling agents in aquaculture can pollute downstream ecosystems. Furthermore, fish excreta and uneaten feeds from aquaculture contribute to the degradation of water quality.

In conclusion, while agriculture has been essential for human development, it has also been a significant contributor to pollution. The intensive use of fertilisers, pesticides, and livestock practices has led to water and air pollution, with far-reaching consequences for the environment and human health. Addressing these issues through sustainable practices, improved management techniques, and policy interventions is crucial for mitigating the negative impacts of agricultural pollution.

Modern-day India

India is one of the world's most polluted countries, with 21 of the world's 30 most polluted cities in 2019. In 2024, New Delhi was ranked as the world's most polluted city, with air quality at a hazardous level. The issue of pollution in India is multifaceted and has been influenced by various factors over time.

Industrial and Vehicular Emissions

India's rapid industrialization and urbanization have significantly contributed to air pollution. Industrial emissions, including those from factories and thermal power plants, release harmful pollutants into the atmosphere. In addition, the country's growing vehicle population, particularly in densely populated cities like Delhi, leads to high levels of vehicular emissions.

Construction

The construction industry is a significant contributor to air pollution in India. Construction sites generate large amounts of dust and debris, which contribute to particulate matter in the air.

Crop Burning

During autumn and spring, large-scale crop residue burning in agricultural fields is a cheaper alternative to mechanical tilling. This practice releases massive amounts of smoke, smog, and particulate pollution, affecting air quality.

Geographical Factors

The geography of Northern India, particularly the Himalayas, creates a barrier that prevents the dispersal of pollutants. Cities like Delhi are surrounded by mountains, trapping air and pollutants, especially during colder months when the air settles down.

Use of Solid Fuels for Cooking and Heating

Millions of low-income households in India rely on solid fuels such as wood, charcoal, crop residues, and cow dung for cooking and heating. These traditional biomass fuels produce higher levels of harmful emissions compared to cleaner alternatives like gas stoves.

Firecracker Use

Cultural and religious celebrations, such as Diwali, can temporarily increase pollution levels due to the use of illegal firecrackers.

Economic Development

India's rapid economic development has led to increased industrialization and urbanization, contributing to higher pollution levels. The country's growing economy and population have resulted in more vehicles, factories, and construction sites, all of which contribute to air pollution.

Recent years have seen a growing awareness of India's pollution problem, with the government, private sector, and public health organizations working to address the issue. Efforts include the National Clean Air Programme, which aims to reduce particulate matter pollution, and the World Bank's support in implementing state and regional airshed plans for cleaner air. Additionally, the Clean Air Fund is empowering healthcare professionals and amplifying health voices in the clean air movement.

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