Bronte Wells
Pollution is not a new phenomenon, and it has been a problem since the emergence of our earliest ancestors. The start of agriculture 11,000 years ago and the advent of the nuclear era in 1945 are two significant events that some people believe marked the beginning of human impacts on the environment. However, most people recognize the Anthropocene, the Age of Humans, as commencing with the Industrial Revolution in the 1780s to 1830s. During this period, the burning of coal for heating, factory operations, and engine power significantly contributed to air pollution. Water pollution also intensified during the Industrial Revolution, as factories discharged pollutants directly into rivers and streams, leading to severe contamination.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Start of pollution | Humans have been polluting the air for thousands of years |
| Ancient Rome | The residents of ancient Rome referred to their city's smoke cloud as "gravioris caeli" ("heavy heaven") and "infamis aer" ("infamous air") |
| Roman courts considered civil claims over smoke pollution 2,000 years ago | |
| The ancient Romans kept domesticated livestock, which excrete methane gas, a byproduct of digestion | |
| Blacksmiths in Rome produced methane gas when they burned wood to fashion metal weapons | |
| Middle Ages | Diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever broke out across Europe due to unsanitary conditions caused by human and animal waste, and garbage |
| The "Black Death" was caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, carried by rats and spread by fleas, due to unsanitary conditions | |
| 18th century | Coal came into large-scale use during the Industrial Revolution, resulting in smog and soot that had serious health impacts on residents of growing urban centers |
| 19th century | Episodes of "smog" in cities like New York and London resulted in many deaths |
| Industrial chemicals and wastes contaminated waters in the Northeast of the United States | |
| 1850s | Acid rain was discovered, caused by coal-powered plants |
| 1897 | A report to the Royal Commission on River Pollution detailed the gross industrial contamination of the Tawe River in Wales |
| 1948 | Severe industrial air pollution created a deadly smog that asphyxiated 20 people in Donora, Pennsylvania, and made 7,000 more sick |
| 1952 | The Great Smog of London lasted for nearly a week, resulting in what modern estimates say could be up to 10,000 deaths |
| 1969 | A major fire on the Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio, prompted the nation to take immediate action against water pollution, leading to the creation of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1972) |
| 1970 | The Clean Air Act was passed |
| 1972 | The Clean Water Act was passed |
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What You'll Learn
Ancient Rome's air pollution
Ancient Rome was home to many groundbreaking inventions and developments, but it also had its fair share of problems, including air pollution. The air pollution in Ancient Rome was so severe that it has been suggested that this period should be called the "Lead Age".
The Romans used lead extensively in construction and waterworks, including pipes, fountains, baths, and roofs. Lead was also present in tableware, paints, cosmetics, and even medicine. However, the most significant source of lead pollution for the general population was likely background air pollution from mining and smelting silver and lead ores. This pollution was not limited to Rome but was also spread across northern Europe and the northern Atlantic world. The Romans also kept livestock, which contributed to methane emissions, and they burned wood for fuel, releasing greenhouse gases and soot.
The impact of this pollution on human health was significant. Historical and archaeological evidence indicates that people living in Roman territory were exposed to high levels of lead, which likely impacted their health and cognitive development. In fact, a study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences found that lead pollution during the Roman era was high enough to measurably damage human health. The study analyzed ice cores from the Arctic and found that lead concentrations increased sharply around 15 B.C., coinciding with the rise of the Roman Empire.
The Romans were aware of the concept of pollution and its negative effects, and they attempted to address it through regulations and laws. For example, they created a sewage system to remove waste from cities and reduce air pollution, and they also utilized hydraulic power to reduce their reliance on burning wood or coal. Despite these efforts, the environmental impact of Ancient Rome was significant, and it has been identified as the start of the Anthropocene, the current chapter of the Holocene epoch.
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Industrial Revolution's impact
The Industrial Revolution, which began in the mid-18th century and stretched into the early 19th century, was a period of rapid and enormous change in Europe and America. It was a time of mass technological development, with the introduction of steam engines, coal-powered factories, mechanized looms, and steam-powered locomotives. This revolution transformed what had been largely rural societies of farmers and craftsmen, who made goods by hand, into manufacturing-based economies.
One of the biggest environmental impacts of the Industrial Revolution was the amount of pollution it released into the environment. The use of coal to power factories, ships, trains, and homes, as well as the burning of fossil fuels, led to a substantial increase in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. The atmospheric CO2 levels have soared since the Industrial Revolution, and the consequences of this are still felt today in the form of climate change and global warming. The burning of coal also caused air pollution in the form of smog, which had negative health impacts on those living in industrial cities, including respiratory illnesses and higher death rates.
The Industrial Revolution also led to water pollution, as harmful pollutants drained into rivers, streams, lakes, and oceans, causing widespread losses of wildlife and diseases. Oil spills and industrial waste polluted waterways, and improper mining practices led to toxic pollutants running off into these water bodies.
In addition to the environmental impacts, the Industrial Revolution also brought about social changes and harsh working conditions for the working class. People moved from the countryside into fast-growing cities, where they worked long hours in dangerous factory environments with poor ventilation, exposure to toxic chemicals, and unstable machinery. The competitive labor force often meant that workers who did not comply with the harsh conditions lost their jobs. The revolution also led to gender discrimination, with women often being paid less than men for the same work and being stereotyped into specific categories of 'women's work'.
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Inca metallurgy's influence
Metallurgy has a long history in South America, with gold artifacts from the Andean region dated to 2155–1936 BC and North American copper artifacts dated to approximately 5000 BC. However, the influence of Inca metallurgy on pollution is a more recent development.
The Inca Empire, which flourished from around 1200 AD to the Spanish conquest in 1532, played a significant role in the advancement of metallurgy in South America. They extracted and smelted metals such as copper, silver, and gold, which were used for both practical and artistic purposes. Metal artifacts were highly valued in the Inca empire, and they served as important symbols of wealth, status, and cultural beliefs.
Inca metallurgy influenced the development of pollution in several ways. Firstly, the large-scale smelting of metals, particularly silver, is believed to have contributed to air pollution. This is evidenced by the presence of trace elements such as lead and bismuth in ice cores from Quelccaya, located about 800 km away from the heart of Inca metallurgical activities in Bolivia. The use of primitive wind-driven furnaces called huayra is also believed to have contributed to the release of pollutants into the atmosphere.
Additionally, the Inca metallurgy influenced the expansion of mining and smelting activities across the empire. The Inca Empire expanded into regions with rich mineral resources, such as the Diaguita lands in what is now north-central Chile. They also influenced the metallurgical practices of neighboring cultures, such as the Diaguitas, who adopted Inca metalworking techniques, and the Mapuche tribes, who paid tributes in gold.
Furthermore, the adoption of the tin-bronze alloy by the Incas led to a significant reorganization of metallurgical production along the Andes. This reorganization involved the spatial segregation of productive stages, allowing for a more efficient utilization of the specialized skills of the groups involved in production. The increased efficiency in metallurgical production may have had indirect effects on pollution levels, though the overall impact of Inca metallurgy on the South American atmosphere is considered negligible compared to subsequent Spanish colonial activities.
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Medieval diseases
The Middle Ages witnessed a plethora of diseases that wreaked havoc on societies across Europe. The era, stretching from the 5th to the 15th century, saw the emergence and spread of various epidemics, including the infamous Black Death, which ravaged Europe in the mid-14th century.
Unsanitary living conditions in medieval cities significantly contributed to the spread of diseases. The lack of understanding of hygiene and sanitation resulted in open sewers, filthy streets, and the dumping of human and animal waste into rivers and ditches. These conditions provided a breeding ground for rats, fleas, and other disease carriers. The bacterium Yersinia pestis, carried by rats and transmitted by fleas, was the primary agent responsible for the Black Death, which caused unprecedented devastation and claimed the lives of millions.
Medieval medicine struggled to effectively address the health challenges of the time. While physicians were available to the wealthy, the treatments they offered were often ineffective, and the survival of patients was largely dependent on luck. The belief in four "humours" within the body, which needed to be balanced, led to peculiar remedies such as bleeding, sweating, and induced vomiting. Surgery during this period was particularly hazardous, as it was often performed by barbers or butchers without anaesthesia or sterilised instruments, resulting in frequent post-operative infections and fatalities.
Common diseases during the medieval period included cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery, tuberculosis, arthritis, and ""sweating sickness," which was likely influenza. Sexually transmitted infections, such as syphilis, were prevalent across all social classes, causing skin rashes, fever, blindness, mental illness, and death. Leprosy, smallpox, scabies, erysipelas, anthrax, and trachoma were also significant health concerns. Infant mortality rates were high, and childbirth presented risks for both mothers and newborns.
While the Middle Ages lacked the scientific understanding and medical advancements we have today, it marked a starting point for public health initiatives. Efforts were made to address unsanitary conditions, and the establishment of hospitals and the provision of medical care laid the groundwork for future progress in medicine and public health.
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20th-century legislation
The 20th century saw a significant shift in the approach to pollution, with increasing calls for regulation and control. Early in the century, court cases began to favour the plaintiffs in pollution cases, and the harmful effects of pollution were becoming more widely understood. This led to the development of pollution control legislation, with the first federal legislation in the US being the Air Pollution Control Act of 1955. This Act provided funding for research and training but did not directly regulate pollution sources.
The Clean Air Act of 1963 was a significant development, marking the first federal legislation to permit direct action to control air pollution. It encouraged cooperation between state, local, and federal bodies to reduce air pollution and provided funding to support the development of state pollution control programs. The Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act amended the 1963 Clean Air Act and set the first federal vehicle emissions standards.
The Clean Air Act of 1970 was another pivotal moment, resulting in a major shift in the federal government's role in air pollution control. This legislation authorized the development of comprehensive federal and state regulations to limit emissions from both stationary and mobile sources. Four major regulatory programs were initiated: the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), State Implementation Plans (SIPs), New Source Performance Standards (NSPS), and National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs).
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 represented another significant step forward. These amendments aimed to address four major threats: acid rain, urban air pollution, toxic air emissions, and stratospheric ozone depletion. They established a national operating permits program and strengthened enforcement to improve compliance. The 1990 amendments also required the EPA to identify whole categories of industrial sources for nearly 190 toxic air pollutants, allowing for more effective regulation and reduction of pollution.
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Frequently asked questions
Humans have been polluting the Earth in one way or another for thousands of years. The ancient Romans, for instance, emitted methane gas from their domesticated livestock and blacksmiths produced methane when they burned wood to fashion weapons. The residents of ancient Rome referred to the smoke cloud over their city as *gravioris caeli* ("heavy heaven") and *infamis aer* ("infamous air").
Water pollution has also been a problem for centuries. In 1897, a report to the Royal Commission on River Pollution detailed the gross industrial contamination of the Tawe River in Wales. In the United States, industrial chemicals and wastes contaminated waters in the Northeast.
In the 19th century, episodes of "smog" (a combination of smoke and fog) in cities like New York and London resulted in many deaths. By the middle of the 20th century, the effects of air pollution from the Industrial Revolution were being felt around the world.
The 20th century saw sweeping advances in the identification, regulation, and control of air pollution. The Clean Air Act was passed in the US in 1963, and the UK passed its own Clean Air Act in 1956 to address the Great Smog of 1952. The 1969 Cuyahoga River fire in Cleveland, Ohio, prompted the nation to take immediate action against water pollution, leading to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (commonly called the Clean Water Act) in 1972.
