Radioactive Pollution: Nuclear Power Plant's Dark Side?

Nuclear power plants are a significant source of radioactive pollution, which can have detrimental effects on human health and the environment. Radioactive waste is produced at every stage of nuclear power generation, from uranium mining to electricity generation and waste production. While nuclear reactors have safety features in place to prevent uncontrolled nuclear reactions, accidents and human error can still occur, leading to the release of radioactive contamination. The radioactive waste produced by nuclear power plants can remain hazardous for thousands of years and requires specialized disposal methods to minimize risks to human health and the environment.

Nuclear power plants and radiation sickness

Nuclear power plants can cause radioactive pollution, and there have been several nuclear accidents that have resulted in radiation sickness. Nuclear power plants use the energy released by the decay of certain radioactive isotopes to generate electricity. This process also produces additional radioactive isotopes. Nuclear power plants have specially designed fuel rods and containment structures to prevent radioactive materials and the ionizing radiation they produce from contaminating the environment. However, if the fuel and surrounding containment structures are severely damaged, radioactive materials and ionizing radiation may be released, potentially causing radiation sickness.

Radiation sickness, or acute radiation syndrome (ARS), is a condition that can occur following exposure to high doses of ionizing radiation. The severity of ARS depends on the amount of radiation exposure, the duration of exposure, and the type of radiation involved. Symptoms of ARS include skin burns, vomiting, diarrhea, and possibly coma. In severe cases, ARS can lead to death, with the cause of death usually being damage to the bone marrow, which can lead to infection and internal bleeding.

There have been several notable nuclear accidents that have resulted in radiation sickness:

• The Chernobyl accident in 1986: This was the worst nuclear disaster in history, caused by an uncontrolled power surge that led to explosions and a fire that destroyed the reactor. The accident released radioactive material and affected a wide area, leading to the evacuation of approximately 350,000 people. Many people in the surrounding areas experienced acute radiation sickness, and there were also long-term health effects, including increased cancer rates.
• The Fukushima Daiichi accident in 2011: A tsunami caused by an earthquake disabled the power supply and cooling systems of three reactors, leading to a nuclear accident. While there were no immediate deaths or cases of radiation sickness reported, more than 100,000 people were evacuated as a preventive measure. However, there were reports of increased stress, anxiety, and depression among the affected populations.
• The Three Mile Island accident in 1979: This accident involved a partial meltdown of one of the reactors, releasing radioactive materials into the environment. While there were no immediate deaths, there were concerns about potential long-term health effects, and the cleanup process took over a decade and cost approximately $1 billion.

It is important to note that nuclear power plants have stringent safety measures in place to prevent accidents and minimize the risk of radiation exposure. These include control rods to absorb excess neutrons and prevent uncontrolled chain reactions, as well as backup power sources and cooling systems. However, as seen in the aforementioned accidents, there is still a risk of radiation exposure, particularly in the event of natural disasters or human error.

To protect against radiation exposure, nuclear power plants have multiple layers of protection, including limiting time spent in radioactive areas, using shielding materials like lead and concrete, and implementing containment structures to confine radioactive materials. These measures aim to minimize the risk of radiation exposure for both workers and the general public.

Radioactive waste and its disposal

Radioactive waste is a type of hazardous waste that contains radioactive material. It is produced in many activities, including nuclear power generation, nuclear weapons reprocessing, and nuclear medicine. Radioactive waste is broadly classified into three categories: low-level waste (LLW), intermediate-level waste (ILW), and high-level waste (HLW). Each type of waste must be disposed of according to its risk to human health and the environment.

Low-Level Waste (LLW)

LLW includes items that have been contaminated with radioactive material or have become radioactive through exposure to neutron radiation. Examples include paper, rags, tools, and protective clothing. LLW is typically disposed of in near-surface repositories and does not require cooling. It accounts for about 97% of the waste produced by the nuclear power industry.

Intermediate-Level Waste (ILW)

ILW contains higher amounts of radioactivity compared to LLW and requires some shielding but not cooling. Examples include resins, chemical sludge, and metal nuclear fuel cladding. ILW is often solidified in concrete or bitumen or mixed with silica sand and vitrified for disposal. It accounts for about 3% of the waste produced by the nuclear power industry.

High-Level Waste (HLW)

HLW is produced by nuclear reactors and the reprocessing of nuclear fuel. It is highly radioactive and often hot due to decay heat, requiring cooling and shielding. HLW includes spent nuclear fuel rods, which contain mostly uranium, fission products, and transuranic elements. HLW accounts for less than 1% of the volume of all radioactive waste produced by the nuclear power industry but contributes to over 95% of the total radioactivity.

Disposal of Radioactive Waste

The disposal of radioactive waste is strictly regulated by government agencies to protect human health and the environment. The most widely favoured solution for the final disposal of HLW is deep geological disposal, which involves burying the waste in stable geological formations deep underground. This method provides multiple layers of protection, combining natural and engineered barriers to prevent the radionuclides from reaching humans and the environment.

Other disposal methods that have been considered or implemented include:

• Ocean disposal: Used by several countries until the 1990s but is no longer permitted by international agreements.
• Space disposal: Investigated in the past but not implemented due to high costs and safety concerns.
• Rock melting: Investigated but not implemented due to technical and economic challenges.
• Deep borehole disposal: Not yet implemented but considered a viable option for small waste forms.
• Transmutation: Using nuclear reactions to convert unstable atoms into shorter-lived nuclides.
• Reprocessing: Allows for the reuse of some radioactive materials.

The management and disposal of radioactive waste is a complex and ongoing challenge, with a focus on finding publicly acceptable, safe, and environmentally sound solutions.

The effects of radiation on pregnant women and children

Radioactive pollution can be released from a nuclear power plant in the event of an accident or human error, mechanical failure, or design flaws. This can have severe consequences for human health, including acute radiation syndrome, cancer, and genetic mutations.

Pregnant women and children are particularly vulnerable to the effects of radiation. The unborn child of a pregnant woman is perhaps the most sensitive to radiation. Exposure to radiation during pregnancy can result in pregnancy loss, malformations of body parts, developmental delays, and an increased risk of cancer. The embryo/fetus is most susceptible to radiation during organogenesis (2 to 7 weeks gestational age) and in the first trimester. The effects of radiation on the fetus include growth restriction, malformations, impaired brain function, and an increased risk of cancer. The probability of miscarriage may also increase, and there may be negative impacts on IQ and mental development.

For children, the risks associated with radiation exposure are greater than for adults, as children's cells are more sensitive to radiation and they have more years ahead of them for the effects of radiation to develop. Radiation therapy for cancer treatment, for example, can cause long-term side effects in children, including problems with muscle or bone growth, second cancers, infertility, hormone deficiencies, learning issues, vision and hearing problems, and more.

The environmental impact of nuclear waste

Nuclear power plants do not produce carbon dioxide emissions or air pollution. However, they do produce radioactive waste, which is a major environmental concern. Radioactive waste includes uranium mill tailings, spent reactor fuel, and other radioactive waste products. These materials can remain radioactive and dangerous to human health for thousands of years.

Radioactive waste is classified as low-level waste or high-level waste. Low-level waste includes contaminated tools, protective clothing, wiping cloths, and other disposable items that become contaminated with small amounts of radioactive dust or particles at nuclear fuel processing facilities and nuclear power plants. High-level waste consists of irradiated, or spent, nuclear reactor fuel. The radioactivity of nuclear waste decreases over time through a process called radioactive decay. The amount of time it takes for the radioactivity of radioactive material to decrease to half its original level is called the radioactive half-life.

The nuclear industry has developed and implemented technologies for the final disposal of the waste it produces. However, there are concerns about the transport of this waste and its potential impact on people and the environment. There are also concerns about the cost of waste management and the lack of a permanent solution for high-level waste disposal.

Finland is close to completing the world's first long-term nuclear waste disposal site, which is expected to be operational in 2023. The site will entomb 2,300 tonnes of high-level waste in an underground hard rock mine. However, there are doubts about the long-term viability of this solution and the potential risks to the local community and environment if something goes wrong.

The safety of nuclear power plants

Nuclear power plants have complex safety and security features in place to prevent the release of radioactive material. Nuclear reactors and power plants have diverse and redundant barriers and safety systems, along with highly trained reactor operators, testing and maintenance activities, and regulatory requirements and oversight by organisations such as the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. A large area surrounding a nuclear power plant is restricted and guarded by armed security teams.

Nuclear power plants have containment structures, such as large concrete domes, to contain accidental releases of radiation. These containment structures are designed to withstand extreme weather events and earthquakes. Nuclear power plants also have containment vessels, which are robust and protect the fuel from impacts of large commercial aircraft.

Nuclear power plants do not produce direct carbon dioxide emissions, but the processes for mining and refining uranium ore and making reactor fuel require large amounts of energy. Nuclear power plants also require large amounts of metal and concrete, which in turn require large amounts of energy to manufacture.

Nuclear power plants produce radioactive waste, which is subject to special regulations that govern its handling, transportation, storage, and disposal to protect human health and the environment. Radioactive waste is classified as low-level or high-level waste, with radioactivity ranging from slightly higher than natural background levels to much higher levels found in spent reactor fuel and parts of nuclear reactors. High-level waste consists of irradiated or spent nuclear reactor fuel in a solid form, consisting of small fuel pellets in long metal tubes called rods.

The nuclear industry has developed and implemented most of the necessary technologies required for the final disposal of the waste it produces. The remaining issue is one of public acceptance, not technological feasibility. The amount of waste produced by the nuclear power industry is small relative to other industrial activities, with 97% of the waste classified as low- or intermediate-level waste.

The safe and environmentally sound disposal of high-level radioactive waste is technologically proven, with international scientific consensus on deep geological repositories. Such projects are well advanced in some countries, such as Finland and Sweden. In the long term, appropriate disposal arrangements are required for high-level radioactive waste due to its prolonged radioactivity.

Nuclear power plants are designed to be safe in their operation and in the event of any malfunction or accident. However, no industrial activity can be entirely risk-free, and incidents and accidents may happen. The safety of operating staff is a prime concern in nuclear plants, with radiation exposure minimised through the use of remote handling equipment, physical shielding, and limiting the time workers spend in areas with significant radiation levels.

Frequently asked questions